Grammar Reference. Unit 10

10.3 Time expressions

Here are some time expressions often found with certain tenses.

Past Simple
I lived in Chicago for six years.
I saw Jack two days ago.
They met during the war.
She got married while she was at university.

Present Perfect
We've been married for ten years.
They've been living here since June.
She hasn't been working since their baby was born.

Future
We're going on vacation for a few days.
The class ends in 20 minutes.
I'll be home in a half an hour.

Prepositions with dates, months, years, etc.

in September
in summer
in the holidays
in 1920s
in 20th century

on Monday
on Monday morning
on 8 August
on Christmas Day
on holiday

at 7 o'clock
at the end of May
at Christmas
at the age of ten
at dinner-time

Grammar Reference. Unit 11

11.0 Question words

Look at the questions. Notice that What, Which, and Whose can combine with a noun and How can combine with an adjective or an adverb.

What kind of music do you like?
What size shoe do you wear?
What colour are your eyes?
Which pen do you want?
Which way is it to the station?
Whose book is this?
How much do you weigh?
How many brothers and sisters do you have?
How many times have you been on a plane?
How much homework do you get every night?
How tall are you?
How often do you go to the dentist?
How long does it take you to get to school?

11.1 Indirect questions

1. Indirect questions have the same word order as the positive and there is no do / does / did.

Tom lives in California.
Do you know where Tom lives?
NOT Do you know where does Tom live?

2. We often make direct questions into indirect questions to make them sound "softer" or more polite.

Direct question
What time do the banks close?

Indirect question
Could you tell me what time the banks close?
Do you know what time the banks close?
Do you happen to know...?
Have you any idea...?
Do you remember...?
Would you mind telling me ...

If there is no question word, use if or whether.

I don't know if I'm coming or not.
I wonder whether it's going to rain

Here are some more expressions that introduce indirect questions

I don't know how long the journey takes.
I wonder how long the journey takes.
I can't remember...
I have no idea...
I'd like to know...
I'm not sure...

11.2 Question tags

Form

1. Question tags are very common in spoken English. The most common patterns are:

positive sentence - negative tag
You're Jenny, aren't you?

or negative sentence - positive tag
It isn't a very nice day, is it?

2. We repeat the auxiliary verb in the tag. If there is no auxiliary, use do / does / did.

You haven't been here before, have you?
You can speak English, can't you?
We should take the dog out, shouldn't we?
Banks close at five, don't they?
She eats meat, doesn't she?
You went to bed late, didn't you?

Note: For negative questions tags with I'm ... , use aren't.

I'm late, aren't I? NOT I'm late, am't I?

But:

I'm not late, am I? NOT I'm not late, aren't I?

3. Notice the meaning of Yes and No in answer to question tags.

"You're coming, aren't you?"
"Yes." (= I am coming.)
"No." (= I'm not coming.)

Use

We use question tags to keep a conversation going by involving listeners and inviting them to participate. The meaning of a question tag depends on how you say it. A question tag with rising intonation is like a real question - it is asking for confirmation. It means "I'm not sure, so I'm checking." The speaker thinks he / she knows the answer, but isn't absolutely certain.

Your name's Michael, isn't it?
You're in advertising, aren't you?
You work in the city, don't you?

A question tag with falling intonation isn't really a question at all - it is a way of making conversation. It means "Talk to me". The speaker expects people to agree with him / her.

Beautiful day, isn't it?
It's wonderful weather for swimming, isn't it?
That was a great concert, wasn't it?
You haven't been here before, have you?

Note: We can also use question tags with negative sentences to make a polite request for information or help.

You couldn't lend me your car this evening, could you?

Grammar Reference. Unit 12

12.1 Tense changes in reported statements

1. It's usual for the verb in the reported clause to "move one tense back" if the reporting verb is in the past tense (e.g., said, told).

The verb is also "moves one tense back" when we are reporting thoughts and feelings.

I thought she was married, but she isn't.
I didn't know he was a teacher. I thought he worked in a bank.
I forgot you were coming. Never mind. Come in.
I hoped you would call.

2. There is not tense change if:

The reporting verb is in the present tense (e.g. says, asks).

"The train will be late." He says the train will be late.
"I come from Spain." She says she comes from Spain.

The reported speech is about something that is still true.

"Rain forest are being destroyed." She told him that rain forests are being destroyed.
"I hate football." I told him I hate football.

Some modal verbs change.

Other modal verbs don't change.

"You should go to bed." He told me I should go to bed.
"It might rain." She said she thought it might rain.

Must stays as must, or changes to had to.

"I must go!"
He said he must go. He said he had to go.

12.2 Reporting verbs

There are many reporting verbs.

We rarely use say with an indirect object (i.e., the person spoken to).

She said she was going.
NOT. She said to me she was going.

Tell is always used with an indirect object in reported speech.

She told me the news.
He told the doctor the news.
They told us the news.
She told her husband the news.

We can use that after say and tell.

He told her (that) he would be home late.
She said (that) sales were down from last year.

Many verbs are more descriptive than say and tell, for example,
explain, interrupt, demand, insist, admit, complain, warn.

He explained that sales were down that year.
He complained that he would be home late.
She admitted that sales were down this year.

Sometimes we report the idea, rather then the actual words.

"I'll lend you some money." He offered to lend me some money.
"I won't help you." She refused to help me.

12.3 Reporting questions

1. The word order in reported questions is different in reported speech. There is no inversion of subject and auxiliary verb and there is no do / does /did. This is similar to indirect questions.

"Why have you come here?" I asked her why she had come here.
"What time is it?" He wants to know what time it is.
"Where do you live?" She asked me where I lived.

Note: We do not use a question mark in a reported question.
We do not use say in reported questions.

He said, "How old are you?"
He asked me how old I am.

2. If there is no question word, use if or whether.

She wants to know if she should wear a dress.
She wants to know whether she should wear a dress.

12.4 Reported commands, requests, etc.

1. For reported commands, requests, offers, and advice, we use verb + person + to + infinitive.

They told us to go away.
They asked me to look after their cat.
He urged the teachers to go back to work.
She persuaded me to have my hair cut.
I advised the President to leave immediately,

Note: Say is not possible. Use ask, told, etc.

2. For negative commands, use not before to.

He told me not to tell anyone.
The police warned people not to go out.

3. We use tell for reported statements and reported commands, but the form is different.

Reported statements
He told me that he was going.
They told us that they were going abroad.
She told them what had been happening.

Reported commands
He told me to keep still.
The police told people to move on.
My parents told me to clean up my room.

We use ask before reported commands and reported questions, but the form is different.

Reported commands
I was asked to attend the interview.
He asked me to open my suitcase.
She asked me not to leave.

Reported questions
He asked me what I did for a living.
I asked her how much the rent was.
She asked me why I had come.